Evaluating Some Hypothesized Cultural and Evolutionary Functions of Music: A Study of Young Children

Theoretical reflections on the evolutionary adaptive functions of music are abundant in literature. However, concrete evaluations of the proposed functions are scarce. This dissertation aimed to evaluate some of the many evolutionary functions that have been attributed to human music. These functions can be evaluated either directly or by testing their underlying assumptions. In this dissertation both methods were employed.

A first hypothesis is the possibility that music is completely dominated by cultural evolution. In a theoretical chapter, it was demonstrated that Bourdieu’s theory of distinction can be seen as closely resembling cultural evolution theory, and that the two can be integrated. Bourdieu’s work has inspired many researchers, some of whom have studied the cultural realm of music. This body of work has shown that the social significance of different music genres differs in different social groups. These ‘taste patterns’, which can assume importance in adult life, first start to appear in adolescence. This is because (1) for developmental reasons, pre-adolescent children do not find music to be as important in their lives as their older counterparts, (2) socio-economic distinction has not yet become a concern, and (3) most listen to children’s music. However, it should be noted that a preference for Western or non-Western tonality and rhythm is set during the first year of life.

The first empirical study addressed two research questions: (1) Can children recognize four basic emotions (sadness, anger, happiness, fear) in music? (2) What is the role of theory of mind in the recognition of emotion in music? These two questions were examined by using an experimental design. Sixty-six preschoolers aged between 4 and 5 years (M = 4.5) were asked to identify four basic emotions in classical music pieces by pointing to the correct emotion card. The preschoolers also responded to playful questions assessing the acquisition of theory of mind. The data were then analyzed by means of a structural equation modelling technique, which included the control variables of age, verbal ability, and prior experience with classical music.

The results showed that most preschoolers were not able to recognize the four basic emotions in music above chance, despite the fact that lengthy and playful sessions had taught them each basic emotion beforehand so that they were able to consistently recognize and understand them. It was concluded that the recognition of emotions in music is an ability not fully developed in preschoolers. The results also showed that acquisition of theory of mind did not predict the recognition of emotions in music, nor did verbal ability predict theory of mind. It was concluded that theory of mind is not linked to the recognition of emotions in music and does not demonstrate that music has an evolutionary emotional function.

The second study investigated two additional research questions: (3) Is music-induced movement associated with social behaviour in children? (4) Which contextual factors influence movement to music and concomitant social play? This was a large and rich observational study of 137 day care children aged between 6 months and 2.5 years. In the background of an unstructured play session 1980’s pop music was played without any instructions. The children were observed via a handheld camera and the observations were then coded. The study consisted of qualitative data based on field notes and quantitative data based on the coding.

First, the results indicated that children aged between 6 months and 2.5 years showed spontaneous rhythmic entrainment to 1980’s adult pop music in unstructured play sessions without being prompted by adults and without having to learn specifically to move to this or any other kind of music. In fact, supervisor interaction predicted less movement in children.

Second, a structural equation model was constructed to test prior hypotheses. The model had good fit measures but falsified some hypotheses. Third, repeated measures ANOVA’s were employed to examine the relationship between tempo, time passed, and age, and how these interact with movement variables (amount of total movement and number of specific body movements), social play, vocalizations, restless play, and music acknowledgement (i.e. clear indications that the children knew that music was present such as pointing at or going to the radio). The results showed that a higher tempo led to less social play, while no tempo effect was found on the amount or types of movement. Age did not reveal any additional effect. The amount of time passed was seen to have a negative effect on the number of trunk movements, as well as on music acknowledgment.

On the basis of these results, it was concluded that music-induced movement is possibly an evolutionary strategy to increase social cohesion. First, the qualitative results showed that even the youngest children moved spontaneously to the music in an unstructured play session, meaning there is a natural tendency to move to music. Second, the structural equations model showed that music-induced movement predicted social play, while controlling for music acknowledgement, number of peers present, supervisor involvement, restless behavior, and vocalizations.