Titel Deelnemers "Korte inhoud" "When the final whistle blows: Social identity pathways support mental health and life satisfaction after retirement from competitive sport" "Catherine Haslam, Ben C.P. Lam, Jie Yang, Niklas K. Steffens, S. Alexander Haslam, Tegan Cruwys, Filip Boen, Niels Mertens, Xinyan Wang, Clifford J. Mallett, Katrien Fransen" "For many athletes, retirement from higher levels of competitive sport poses significant challenges. Research has shown that athletic identity is a key predictor of adjustment trajectories, but the mechanisms through which this affects outcomes are less clear. Added to this, there has been limited research on the role that wider social identities, and the resources they enable, play in adjustment. Addressing both these issues, we examined theoretically derived social identity pathways to retirement adjustment in athletes who had played sport at higher competitive levels and two potential mechanisms, or psychological resources, through which adjustment might be enabled. This was examined in two samples: retired athletes from countries in Western (n = 215) and Eastern (n = 183) regions. Loss of athletic identity, social group memberships (multiple, maintained and new), psychological resources (perceived meaning in life and control), and adjustment (life satisfaction, depression, and perceived physical health) were assessed. In both samples, the loss of athletic identity undermined adjustment by reducing meaning in life and perceived control. Path analysis showed that both maintained and gained social group memberships counteracted the negative effects of athletic identity loss on adjustment. Evidence that these pathways enabled access to psychological resources was found primarily in Chinese athletes, with maintained groups influencing personal control and new groups influencing meaning in life. These findings highlight the importance of social identity processes to retirement from higher levels of competitive sport and the mechanisms through which they can either support or undermine adjustment." "Identity leadership going global: Validation of the Identity Leadership Inventory across 20 countries" "Katrien Fransen, Jeroen Stouten" "© 2018 The British Psychological Society Recent theorizing applying the social identity approach to leadership proposes a four-dimensional model of identity leadership that centres on leaders’ management of a shared sense of ‘we’ and ‘us’. This research validates a scale assessing this model – the Identity Leadership Inventory (ILI). We present results from an international project with data from all six continents and from more than 20 countries/regions with 5,290 participants. The ILI was translated (using back-translation methods) into 13 different languages (available in the Appendix S1) and used along with measures of other leadership constructs (i.e., leader–member exchange [LMX], transformational leadership, and authentic leadership) as well as employee attitudes and (self-reported) behaviours – namely identification, trust in the leader, job satisfaction, innovative work behaviour, organizational citizenship behaviour, and burnout. Results provide consistent support for the construct, discriminant, and criterion validity of the ILI across countries. We show that the four dimensions of identity leadership are distinguishable and that they relate to important work-related attitudes and behaviours above and beyond other leadership constructs. Finally, we also validate a short form of the ILI, noting that is likely to have particular utility in applied contexts. Practitioner points: The Identity Leadership Inventory (ILI) has a consistent factor structure and high predictive value across 20 countries and can thus be used to assess a leader's ability to manage (team and organizational) identities in a range of national and cultural contexts. Identity leadership as perceived by employees is uniquely related to important indicators of leadership effectiveness including employees’ relationship to their team (identification and perceived team support), well-being (job satisfaction and reduced burnout), and performance (citizenship and innovative behaviour at work). The ILI can be used in practical settings to assess and develop leadership, for instance, in 360-degree feedback systems. The short form of the ILI is also a valid assessment of identity leadership, and this is likely to be useful in a range of applied contexts (e.g., those where there is a premium on cost and time or when comparing multiple leaders or multiple time points)." "Identity Formation and General and Cancer-specific Functioning in Adolescent and Emerging Adult Survivors of Childhood Cancer: A Longitudinal Study into Directionality of Effects" "Sofie Prikken, Elise Van Laere, Jurgen Lemiere, Laurence Claes, Philip Moons, Anne Uyttebroeck, Sandra Jacobs, Koen Luyckx" "BACKGROUND: Adolescent and emerging adult survivors of childhood cancer generally adjust well psychologically similar to their peers. Nevertheless, some survivors are at greater risk for developing psychological and physical difficulties. To shed light on the psychosocial functioning of adolescent and emerging adult survivors of childhood cancer, personal identity formation and its interplay with general and cancer-specific functioning need to be investigated. PURPOSE: To examine the longitudinal associations linking identity formation to general and cancer-specific functioning in adolescent and emerging adult childhood cancer survivors using three-wave data over a 2-year period. METHODS: Dutch-speaking survivors (at baseline: n = 125; 53% female; age range: 14-25 years) treated at the pediatric oncology department of the University Hospitals Leuven (Belgium), completed self-report questionnaires at three annual timepoints. Directionality of effects and correlated changes were examined using cross-lagged structural equation modeling. RESULTS: Regarding general functioning, bidirectional effects occurred. Life satisfaction positively predicted identity synthesis and both life satisfaction and good physical functioning negatively predicted identity confusion over time. Identity synthesis, in turn, positively predicted life satisfaction and identity confusion negatively predicted good physical functioning over time. Regarding cancer-specific functioning, mainly unidirectional effects occurred. Post-traumatic stress symptoms negatively predicted identity synthesis and positively predicted identity confusion over time, whereas the reverse pattern of associations was found for benefit finding. Several correlated changes were found linking identity formation and psychosocial functioning as well. CONCLUSIONS: The present study uncovered clinically meaningful pathways linking identity formation to psychosocial functioning over time in adolescents and emerging adults who survived childhood cancer." "Identity processes and personality traits and types: Directionality of effects and developmental trajectories" "Koen Luyckx, Eveline Teppers, Jessica Rassart" "Personality traits are hypothesized to be among the most important factors contributing to individual differences in identity development. However, longitudinal studies linking Big Five personality traits to contemporary identity models (in which multiple exploration and commitment processes are distinguished) are largely lacking. To gain more insight in the directionality of effect and the developmental interdependence of the Big Five and identity processes as forwarded in multilayered personality models, the present study assessed personality and identity in 1,037 adolescents 4 times over a period of 3 years. First, using cross-lagged path analysis, Big Five traits emerged as consistent predictors of identity exploration processes, whereas only one significant path from identity exploration to the Big Five was found. Second, using latent class growth analysis, 3 Big Five trajectory classes were identified, resembling the distinctions typically made between resilients, overcontrollers, and undercontrollers. These classes were characterized by different initial levels and (to a lesser extent) rates of change in commitment and exploration processes. In sum, important developmental associations linking personality traits to identity processes were uncovered, emphasizing the potential role of personality traits in identity development. Developmental implications and suggestions for future research are discussed." "Need Satisfaction in Intergroup Contact: A Multinational Study of Pathways Toward Social Change" "Colette van Laar" "What role does intergroup contact play in promoting support for social change toward greater social equality? Drawing on the needs-based model of reconciliation, we theorized that when inequality between groups is perceived as illegitimate, disadvantaged group members will experience a need for empowerment and advantaged group members a need for acceptance. When intergroup contact satisfies each group's needs, it should result in more mutual support for social change. Using four sets of survey data collected through the Zurich Intergroup Project in 23 countries, we tested several preregistered predictions, derived from the above reasoning, across a large variety of operationalizations. Two studies of disadvantaged groups (Ns = 689 ethnic minority members in Study 1 and 3,382 sexual/gender minorities in Study 2) support the hypothesis that, after accounting for the effects of intergroup contact and perceived illegitimacy, satisfying the need for empowerment (but not acceptance) during contact is positively related to support for social change. Two studies with advantaged groups (Ns = 2,937 ethnic majority members in Study 3 and 4,203 cis-heterosexual individuals in Study 4) showed that, after accounting for illegitimacy and intergroup contact, satisfying the need for acceptance (but also empowerment) is positively related to support for social change. Overall, findings suggest that intergroup contact is compatible with efforts to promote social change when group-specific needs are met. Thus, to encourage support for social change among both disadvantaged and advantaged group members, it is essential that, besides promoting mutual acceptance, intergroup contact interventions also give voice to and empower members of disadvantaged groups. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved)." "The day after you win the World Cup: The transformative power of international sporting success for social cohesion, intragroup interactions and health" "Fergus G Neville, Katrien Fransen, Gianluca Giammei, S Alexander Haslam, Jackie Hunter, Ken Mavor, Michael Platow, Stephen D Reicher, Kate Reynolds" "Objectives: This study examined the impact of a high-profile international sporting event (Rugby World Cup Final 2015) on social interactions and health in the participating countries.Design: Within-subject diary and survey data were collected in New Zealand (victorious) and Australia (defeated). Pre-match data were collected on the day of the final, and post-match data on either the following day or five days post-match.Methods: Within-subject diaries detailing social interactions and experiences were completed by 45 participants (24 in New Zealand and 12 in Australia). These were examined using Thematic Analysis. Within-subject surveys were completed by 322 participants (213 in New Zealand and 109 in Australia) and were analysed using repeated-measures ANOVAs and structural equation modelling.Results: In New Zealand there were significant post-match increases in self-efficacy, life satisfaction, community cohesion, self-esteem and health. Moreover, improvements in community cohesion and quality of social interaction had positive indirect effects on health through self-efficacy and life satisfaction. These results were not replicated in the Australian data. Diary entries from New Zealanders complemented the quantitative data by explaining how intragroup intimacy, support and joy emanated from the shared collective experience of overcoming an outgroup rival.Conclusions: New Zealanders experienced a positive transformation in social relations with strangers which led to an increased perception of health. No such change was reported by Australian participants, although comparisons were limited by pre-match differences in rugby identification. The results demonstrate the ability of international sport to facilitate intragroup intimacy and support and provides further evidence for ‘Social Cure’ processes in determining health outcomes." "'You have got a friend' : the value of perceived proximity for teleworking success in dispersed teams" "Caroline Ruiller, Beatrice van der Heijden, Frédérique Chedotel, Marc Dumas" "Purpose - As a way to enable employees to work distantly, teleworking has gained a growing interest in companies. At the same time, management challenges regarding the teleworkers' risk of isolation, coupled with the need to maintain cohesion for the dispersed team, to give an example, are various. How can management practices help to maintain adequate levels of perceived proximity for a dispersed team's members? The purpose of this paper is to answer this question. Referring to a particular person's perception of how close or how far another person is, the concept of perceived proximity is mobilized. This Telecom case study is based on 22 interviews with human resources directors, managers and teleworkers. While the results of this study appear to corroborate empirically the theoretical model as proposed by O'Leary et al. (2014), they also propose nuances, highlighting the importance of the interpersonal relationship to expand the perceived proximity and stressing the need for both distant and face-to-face exchanges. They also help to understand which management practices can influence perceived proximity. In particular, they help to understand the role of communication and collective identity and support the importance of the e-leader. Finally, the results highlight two remote management modes that will be discussed elaborately. Design/methodology/approach - The authors conducted a single in-depth case study of Telecom as a unique case study; it is useful to analyze new and complex phenomena for which theoretical development is emerging and the consideration of the context is essential (Yin, 2013). In total, 22 interviews were conducted with the human resources directors, managers and teleworkers. Lasting between 40 and 130 min each, the interviews were all fully transcribed and analyzed using an iterative thematic content analysis. The authors first manually analyzed the data on the basis of the social regulation theory to interpret the local and the combined regulation (that is say to how the managers and the teleworkers co-build the rules to work being distant) the telework implied between managers, teleworkers and their co-workers (Authors, 2018). Two emerging codes led the authors to reinterpret the data, compared to the initial interpretative framework. The authors thus transformed the coding and recoded the 22 interviews (Bacharach et al., 2000, p. 713; cited by Gibbert et al. 2010, p. 58) around the objective/subjective working time and information and communication technology (ICT) use and the perceived proximity: shared identity and perceived proximity, and communication and perceived proximity. Findings - First, the level of ICT use and the accompanying objective and subjective perceptions with regard to working time are reported and positive perceptions for the employees are determined because of the timing flexibility the ICT determines. Second, the ICT use is presented in relation to the managerial and collegial proximity perceived. Third, the authors discuss the shared identity processes that influence the proximity perceived, followed by the characteristics of the communication process, being the fourth one. As such, the results lead to a valuable input that enables to critically reflect on the e-leader roles, resulting in two emerging management modes seen as a continuum in terms of shared identity: the ""e-communicational"" mode signals the re-foundation of management in situations of distance based on the personality of the e-leader that influences the team members in terms of communicational and organizational behaviors; and the control management mode that is based upon objectives in a situation of being distant, illustrated by managers who regulate the work made by the distant team in monitoring the objectives without sharing the experience of telework. Research limitations/implications - The results corroborate empirically with the theoretical model by Boyer O'Leary et al. (2014), while putting into perspective the complexity to manage the inter-subjectivity that is related to distance. More specifically, the results show that even if the ICT use leads to a new balance regarding time management for teleworkers - increasing their quality of life perceptions, with a better organizational flexibility - that is to say, a ""win-win"" configuration, the ultimate success of such a configuration depends on sound management practices. In this sense, the authors propose to enrich their model (Figure 3, p. 33). More extensive research will test two new moderating variables. At first, the results put in evidence the core role of e-management (e-communicational vs control), with a potential moderator effect on the relationship between objective distance and shared identification, on the one hand, and communication, on the other hand. Another result is the potential moderator effect of the ICT use on the relationship between perceived proximity and relationship quality. The nuances proposed support some recent studies arguing that distant communication (versus face-to-face) may inhibit geographically distributed team performance without consideration of the way the teams use ICT to ensure their cohesion and performance (Malhotra and Majchrzak, 2014). Practical implications - These conclusions result into important management recommendations to support dispersed teams with how to cope with challenges such as the risk of delayed communication, possible misinterpretations, limited information richness and great conflicts (Zuofa and Ochieng, 2017). Originality/value - Compared to the unique empirical application of the Boyer O'Leary et al.'s framework (2014), who found no differences existing in terms of proximity perceived with the study of 341 ""geographically present"" dyads with 341 ""geographically distant,"" this study's results show that the construction of the feeling of proximity depends on a fragile balance between virtual and face-to-face exchanges. The authors also highlight the role of an e-leader in this regard and identify and compare two modes of remote management." "La fabrique d'une persona scientifique au féminin. L'international Federation of Univeristy Women (1920-1960)" "Anna Albertine Cabanel" "Although transnational networks of intellectual women started to burgeon in the late 19thcentury in North America and the United Kingdom, the foundation of the International Federation of University Women (IFUW) in 1919 marked an important step towards the internationalisation and the structuration of the movement of university women. The IFUW endeavoured simultaneously to promote women, science, and internationalism. According to its Constitution, it strove ""to promote understanding and friendship between the university women of the nations of the world, and thereby to further their interests and develop between their countries sympathy and mutual helpfulness"". Like most international organisations during the interwar period, the IFUW's members defined their work and aims in line with internationalist ideals and general beliefs on the role of education in the peace process. Due to its multiple identities, the IFUW has never been considered to be a full-fledged scientific organization. However, for the first time in history, women scientists and academics from different nations were brought together. By pursuing strong science policies (such as the establishment of a research fellowship programme for women), the ambitions and actions of the FIFDU were similar to those of other scientific organisations, but with the specificity of being run and dedicated only by and for women. Focusing oninternational organization characterised by this dual aspect, feminine and scientific, this Ph.D. studies the conditions for the integration and recognition of women in science. It brings together gender history, history of transnational organisations and history of science. In recent developments in the history and philosophy of science, scholars started to pay greater attention to the analysis of a collective and cultural image of the scientist, using the analytical prism of persona. Located in-between the individual and institutional, persona function as ideals and models that one has to perform in order to be recognized as a scientist. The concept constitutes an interesting tool with which to research the link between performance, scientific authority and legitimate knowledge. In line with this growing body of literature, this monograph uses this concept to highlight the cultural and gendered dynamics that underpinned the criteria for academic excellence. It studies the link between the identity of scientists (specifically, but not limited to their sex), their credibility as scientists and the conditions for the recognition of their work. This thesis thus examines the role of the IFUW as a women's scientific organisation in the construction and dissemination of a scientific persona with which women could identify and be associated with. To what extent has the IFUW acted as a laboratory in which a female scientific persona was constructed? What was the nature of this new scientific persona and to what extent did it differ or borrow from the normative or hegemonic ideal represented by a supposedly general counterpart: the scientist (or academic), that was unmarked by its male gender? Using an institutional approach, centred around the IFUW, this thesis studies the process of building a scientific persona on a collective scale. The international and multidisciplinary nature of the organization invites us to reflect on the way a scientific persona was negotiated according to institutional, disciplinary, but also cultural and social contexts. An important part of the analysis is dedicated to the international fellowship programme for women which was intended to offset the low proportion of women as fellowship recipients in other programmes. This was a particularly important issue in terms of research opportunities, scientific recognition and prestige. While funding bodies became a cornerstone of the scientific world in the twentieth century, they seemed to have been instrumental in promoting a masculine scientific persona and thus strengthened gender imbalance in science. Not only did such programs provide scholars with the means to conduct their research in practice, but also actively participated in shaping new types of scientific identities and ideals through the selection of the 'best' fellows. What strategies did the university women pursue through their funding policies? What ideal of women scientist did they promote? As an exclusively women's organisation, the IFUW promoted a persona in which the gender dimension occupied a crucial place. To what extent the university women tried, through their meetings, debates, publications, and public representations, to develop and promote a new identity, and to reconcile what was initially presented and perceived as incompatible: women and science? Combining the institutional approach with a biographical one, this thesis highlights the interactive dynamics at stake in the formation process of scientific persona, in-between the personal, individual strategies, and the collective and public ones. It examines not only the way in which individuals who were leaders of the university women's movement or won a fellowship, mobilized and mixed (existing) scientific repertoires to be accepted by the scientific and academic communities but were also recognized by the general public. By doing so, the monograph aims to investigate the relationship between the construction of the persona 'university women' and the gendered and embodied performance of scientific credibility. The diversity of my approach is reflected by the different nature and the variety of the archival sources used. The IFUW's main archival fund is located in Atria, the Institute on gender equality and women's history (Amsterdam). The institutional publications, official photographs, and paintings, as well as the minutes of Councils, conferences and the IFUW Committees, formed the basis for the analysis. The archival collections of the American and British federation of university women provided important additional information, especially concerning the IFUW fellows. Memories, testimonies, correspondence and personal archives made it possible to step out of institutional history and to approach the individual experience. This work consists of eight chapters organized thematically and chronologically, which explore the making-of and vectors for the promotion of a new scientific persona - that of university women with a focus on women scientists - and seek to measure the evolution of this persona over the period. The first chapter focuses on the foundation years of the IFUW (the 1890s-1920s). These years were crucial in the development of a new scientific persona for university women. It pays particular attention to the definition of the term university women and its translation into different national contexts. It explores the conditions of membership in the constitution of the movement in relation to the already existing international movements, either academic, scientific or feminine. The organisation of international congresses enabled university women from different countries to meet each other. Such events were crucial in performing their identity and promoting their objectives and ambitions to the public arena, well beyond the circle of members. The second chapter investigates the first international congresses of the IFUW between 1920 and 1932. The documents they generated, such as the institutional publications (Bulletins) or photographs, provide rich material for the analysis of the mise-en-scèneof an institutional scientific persona. Based on a group portrait of the first female international presidents of the IFUW during the interwar period, the third chapter examines the role of these leaders in the development of a female scientific elite. Through the analysis of the leaders' respective trajectories but also of the conditions of their appointment as presidents, the chapter analyses how they participated in defining the scientific persona of the IFUW while taking advantage of the symbolic dimension that the function covers. The fourth chapter takes a closer look at the IFUW fellowship programme during the interwar period.By particularly focussing on the selection process, as evidenced by the minutes of committee meetings and the fellows' files, it explores the implicit norms and expectations to which candidates were subjected, in order to reconstruct the ideal type of a woman scientist. The fifth chapter focuses on the IFUW fellows, using a prosopographical approach. It analyses the impact of the fellowship on their scientific journey, and career, and on the construction of their credibility as scientists. The aim here is not to evaluate the scholarship programme in terms of success or failure,but to reconstruct the fellows' scientific careers by questioning the conditions (and limits) of success and to recognise women in the scientific and academic worlds. The attention devoted to fellowship reports calls into question the influence of the requirements and bureaucratic arsenal of research funding agencies in transforming the scientific habitus. Leaving the collective perspective aside, the sixth chapter attempts to reconstruct the trajectory of one of the IFUW fellows: Erzébet Kol, a specialist in snow and ice algae, who received an international fellowship in 1935 to conduct field research throughout North America. Starting from the analysis of Kol's scientific trajectory, this chapter questions the impact of gender on the recognition of scientists and studies the way in which the university women attempted to reconcile scientific identities that were sometimes culturally opposed. The escalation of anti-feminist reactions and nationalist tensions in Europe in the 1930s and the outbreak of the Second World War disrupted the IFUW agenda and threatened the careers of many women scientists, especially those who were declared non-Aryans. The seventh chapter analyses the university women's response against the repeated attacks on women scientists and intellectuals and gives particular attention to the role of the IFUW fellowship programme in securing grants to scientific refugees. The last chapter examines the IFUW commemorative and memorial practices in the 1950s and 1960s and studies the role that memory played in the celebration and transmission of a scientific persona. At the end of the first half-century of its existence, the IFUW renown had nothing in common with that of the major international feminist associations or with that of the other scientific institutions such as the Rockefeller Foundation. Compare to other funding bodies, the number of women who have benefited from the IFUW fellowship program remains modest. But through the establishment of the fellowship programme and international clubhouses, the promotion of international exchanges and travel, the university women have contributed to the creation of an international network and stage for women scientists. Moreover, in a more subtle, profound, and decisive way, the IFUW and its national branches have succeeded in promoting the figure of the 'university woman'. Such a contribution to the definition and success of a female scientist cannot be overlooked, even if it is only part of a broader effort." "A longitudinal study into the reciprocal effects of identities and smoking behaviour: Findings from the ITC Netherlands Survey" "Colette van Laar" "Objective. Although it has been found that identity constructs related to smoking are associated with changes in smoking behaviour, the direction of causal associations is as yet unclear. This study aims to clarify the nature and direction of these associations. Methods. In this longitudinal study we examined the reciprocal relations between identity constructs (i.e., smoker self-identity, quitter selfidentity and smoker group-identity), intention to quit and smoking and quitting behaviour among a sample of 1036 smokers and ex-smokers, using cross-lagged structural equation modelling. Moreover, we tested whether these relations differed by socio-economic status (SES). Results. Identity and smoking behaviour were reciprocally related in that in intention to quit and smoking behaviour consistently predicted identity change, and identity predicted (changes in) intentions to quit and smoking behaviour. Behaviour appears more important for identity change than identity for behaviour change. Furthermore, quitter selfidentity appears more important than smoker self- and group-identity. Relationships did not differ significantly between SES-groups. The findings were replicated using a cross-validation sample. Conclusion. Results imply that changing smoking behaviour may be a vehicle to change smoking-related identity. Moreover, strengthening identification with quitting is more crucial for quit success than decreasing smoker identities. The finding that behaviour may be more important for identity than vice versa, if replicated, may call for additions to identity theories." "Sustainable development between international and domestic forces. A comparative analysis of subnational policies" "Sander Happaerts" "Sustainable development is the international communitys answer to a series of societal and environmental problems that are linked to global patterns of production and consumption. Since the 1970s, mankind has been trying to find adequate solutions to issues such as climate change, biodiversity loss, energy and food scarcity, large-scale environmental degradation and social injustice. The global policy responses that are developed, need to be carried out at lower levels of governance. Sustainable development, however, is a contested concept, and many challenges arise when policy-makers try to put it into practice. This dissertation looks at the efforts of subnational governments. Situated between the national and the local level of governance, those actors have been understudied in the literature. That is surprising, since in several countries they have important responsibilities in key areas, and many of them have initiated sustainable development policies. The dissertation addresses two questions. A preliminary research question looks into what the sustainable development policies of subnational governments exactly are, to fill a research gap in the literature. Subsequently, the core research question investigates which factors explain the choices that are made in subnational sustainable development policies, as first observations indicate a variety of governmental responses. Therefore, the research has both a descriptive and an explana­tory aim, through which it wants to inform a more systematic knowledge of sustainable development at the subnational level of govern­ance. The theoretical foundation of this research consists of the study of three theoretical traditions, in order to identify the factors that explain subnational sustainable development policies. First, the literature on policy convergence and divergence (situated in the field of comparative policy analysis) offers causal explanations on the similarity or dissimilarity among policies. Second, the literature on governance for sustainable development is looked at for policy-specific characteristics and for the insights it offers regarding how particular features of a country or entity influence how it implements sustainable development. Third, the literature on comparative regionalism and federalism is added to account for the specificity of the subnational level and the factors that influence policies of subnational governments. From the combination of those theoretical traditions, four main explanatory factors were distilled: international influence, degree of autonomy, political context and socioeconomic conditions. Sustainable development policies, the unit of analysis in this study, were further subdi­vided into three policy dimensions, which focus on policy content. As a first dimension, policy framing refers to how govern­ments interpret sustainable development and give meaning to it as a policy problem. The dimension was constructed out of the observation that the understanding of sustainable develop­ment is often problematic and gives rise to multiple interpretations. Second, I looked at the different policy goals of subnational sustainable development policies, and analyzed their main characteristics. A final policy dimension consisted of the various policy instruments that are put in place to attain the goals. Furthermore, in addition to the focus on policy content, the analysis traced the process leading up to the institutionalization of the sustainable development policies.In order to study the explanatory power of the four factors with respect to subnational sustainable development policies, a comparative case study analysis of the policies of five subnational governments was proposed: Quebec, Flanders, Wallonia, North Rhine-Westphalia and North Holland. A within-case analysis of each separate case was followed by a cross-case analysis in which the findings were systematically compared. Both parts of the analysis were informed by the descriptive as well as the explanatory research question. The analysis showed a broad variety of policy initiatives, some of which were innovative and inspiring. However, the subnational sustainable development policies, overall, paint a grim picture. With regard to the policy framing, the results are ambiguous. At a superficial level, the interpretation of sustainable development reflects the internationally accepted definition in all cases. The analysis suggests that subnational sustainable development policies were put in place because of the existence of a certain policy gap, in other words, subnational government felt that they needed to do something for sustainable development. Beneath the surface, however, the policy framing perpetuates the vagueness of sustainable development, as none of the subnational governments succeeds in creating a uniform interpretation that is shared by all governmental actors. Another ambivalence was observed in the analysis of policy goals. On the one hand, sustainable development is translated into strategic policy goals that mirror the international ambitions for fundamental changes in the worlds prevailing modes of development. On the other hand, those strategic goals are met by much weaker operational policy goals, which do not propose much more than marginal changes, if any. The policy instruments that are applied for sustainable development constitute a mix of generally cautious, noncommittal and non-binding tools. As a consequence, subnational sustainable development policies are conceived as policies that merely inform, persuade, stimulate and at best assist governmental (and in some cases non-governmental) actors to pursue sustainable development. The analysis revealed a preference for institutional instruments (administrative tools and planning documents) and for rewarding economic instruments with a limited scope. However, numerous problems were uncovered with regard to the instruments enforcement.The core of the research interest was explanatory. It was concluded that the political context in which subnational governments operate, is the principal explanatoryfactor. An initial dose of political will (exhibited by certain political parties or by individual policy entrepreneurs) is a precondition to bring the concept onto the agenda. At the same time, however, subnational governments lack the necessary political will to consistently assume the logic of sustainable development. As a result, their policies have a low salience and do not exceed the margins of day-to-day politics. The international influence was also a prominent factor. Different kinds of transnational pressures were instrumental in triggering sustainable development policies, and in shaping their content in some cases. The international influence is greater in the case of subnational entities that have a distinct territorial identity (in my sample, Quebec and Flanders) and if they have actively participated in international decision-making themselves. Furthermore, the degree of autonomy of subnational governments sets the boundaries for the thematic areas of their policy goals and for their potential policy instruments. The policies range form a restricted initiative with limited instruments targeting a few selected themes in the case of North Holland (with a low degree of autonomy), to a quasi-national policy with a broad range of themes and a wide series of policy instruments in the case of Quebec (with a very high degree of autonomy). However, the factor was unable to explain some of the weaknesses and missed opportunities that were noted in all five cases. Finally, socioeconomic conditions were found to have only a very limited explanatory power. Most importantly, the institutionalization of sustainable development can be obstructed if a subnational governments attention is predominantly aimed at economic recovery.Based on the findings, an analytical model for explaining subnational sustainable development policies was presented, depicting the explanatory power of each of the four factors with regard to the policies and the three policy dimensions, containing also some interrelations between the factors that have been uncovered by the research. Accompanied by four refined hypotheses, that analytical model can now be used to guide further research in the field.Mainly because of a general lack of political will to touch the core driving forces of sustainable development, the policies today are characterized by symbolic politics. The dissertation makes a plea for overcoming that symbolic character, by pointing out some of the most pressing obstacles, such as the noncommittal approach and the superficial nature of current policies."